INTRODUCTION
Cervical spine disorders, including cervical disc herniation, spondylosis, and stenosis, are prevalent conditions that significantly contribute to pain, functional impairment, and disability worldwide. Epidemiological data indicate that cervical spondylosis affects approximately 10%–20% of the global population, with prevalence increasing with age, particularly among individuals over 50 years. These conditions impose a substantial socioeconomic burden, leading to increased healthcare costs and loss of productivity [1-3]. Clinically, patients with cervical spine disorders often present with a range of symptoms. Cervical disc herniation and spondylosis frequently cause radicular pain, characterized by sharp, shooting discomfort radiating down the arm due to nerve root compression. Neurological manifestations may include motor weakness, sensory deficits, and diminished reflexes in the affected limbs. In cases of severe cervical stenosis, myelopathy can develop, presenting signs such as gait disturbances, hand clumsiness, and loss of fine motor skills, which can significantly impair daily activities [1-3]. These conditions often lead to radicular or myelopathic symptoms that profoundly impact a patient’s quality of life and necessitate surgical intervention when conservative treatments fail. Traditional open cervical spine surgeries, such as anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF), have long been considered the gold standard for addressing these conditions [2,3]. While effective, these approaches are associated with several drawbacks, including extensive soft tissue dissection, prolonged recovery times, postoperative pain, and the potential for long-term complications such as adjacent segment disease (ASD).
In recent years, advancements in minimally invasive techniques have made full endoscopic cervical surgery (FECS) a promising alternative to traditional spine surgery [4,5]. FECS uses a high-definition endoscope and specialized instruments through small incisions, offering benefits like reduced tissue trauma, shorter hospital stays, faster recovery, and fewer complications. FECS can be performed using anterior or posterior approaches [4,5]. The anterior approach is typically used for discectomy, fusion, and foraminotomy, while the posterior approach is employed for decompression, laminectomy, and fusion. These procedures, including decompression, discectomy, foraminotomy, and laminectomy, aim to relieve nerve root or spinal cord compression and, when combined with fusion, stabilize the spine. FECS offers effective treatment with minimal disruption to surrounding tissues, often yielding outcomes comparable to traditional open surgeries [5,6].
Despite the growing popularity of FECS, the available evidence remains fragmented, primarily consisting of small cohort studies and retrospective analyses, which limits the broader applicability of their findings. Moreover, patient-reported outcomes, including not only satisfaction but also factors such as return to work, activity levels, and overall functional recovery, are becoming increasingly critical in evaluating the true impact of surgical interventions on quality of life. These gaps in the existing literature underscore the importance of conducting a comprehensive systematic review that integrates both clinical outcomes and patient perspectives, offering a more complete understanding of FECS’s efficacy and its effect on patients’ daily lives. The primary aim of this review was to clarify the safety and efficacy of FECS in pain relief, functional improvement, and complication rates. A secondary aim is to examine patient-reported outcomes, including satisfaction, return to work, and quality of life, to provide a holistic understanding of the procedure’s impact on patients. By synthesizing the current evidence, this review seeks to inform clinical practice and highlight areas for future research in this evolving field.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
1. Search Methodology
A systematic review of the literature was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Fig. 1) [7]. The following databases were searched: PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, Embase, and Web of Science. The search was restricted to articles published between January 2000 and September 2024. Search terms used included a combination of MeSH terms and keywords, such as “full endoscopic cervical surgery,” “cervical discectomy,” “clinical outcomes,” “patient satisfaction,” and “minimally invasive surgery.” Boolean operators (AND, OR) were used to refine the search results and ensure comprehensive coverage. Additionally, the reference lists of relevant articles were manually screened to identify additional studies that were not captured by the database search.
2. Study Selection
The study selection process was carried out independently by 2 authors. Initially, titles and abstracts of all identified studies were screened to exclude irrelevant articles. Full-text versions of potentially eligible studies were then retrieved and assessed in detail against the inclusion and exclusion criteria. In case discrepancies arose between the 2 reviewers regarding study eligibility, consensus was reached through discussion. If disagreements persisted, a third reviewer was consulted to resolve any remaining disputes.
3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The inclusion criteria for the study design were controlled trials (randomized controlled trials, RCTs), prospective cohort studies, retrospective studies, and case series involving adult patients (age≥ 18 years) who underwent FECS. The studies had to report clinical outcomes following FECS. These outcomes included pain relief, functional improvement, complication rates, revision rates, patient satisfaction, quality of life, and return to work. The exclusion criteria comprised single case report, narrative reviews, meta-analyses, conference abstracts, and technical notes. Studies focusing on other types of cervical spine operation, pediatric populations, or conditions involving the thoracic and lumbar spine were excluded. Additionally, articles not published in English were excluded.
4. Data Extraction
Two independent reviewers screened the titles and abstracts of identified studies. Full-text articles of potentially eligible studies were retrieved and reviewed in detail. Any discrepancies between the reviewers were resolved by consensus or by consulting a third reviewer. Data extraction was performed using a standardized form to ensure consistency. The extracted data included the following: study characteristics, such as author, publication year, study design, sample size, and study location. Patient demographics, including age, sex, symptom duration, level of disc herniation, and history of previous conservative treatment. Clinical outcomes include pain relief score, visual analogue scale (VAS), functional outcomes, Neck Disability Index (NDI), Japanese Orthopaedic Association, complication and revision rates. Patient perspectives encompass patient satisfaction, quality of life, return to work, and other patient-reported outcomes. The data were carefully verified for accuracy and completeness, and potential variations in pain assessment methods across studies were acknowledged to ensure clarity and consistency in the comparisons.
5. Risk of Bias Assessment
The risk of bias for each included study was assessed by 2 independent reviewers using the appropriate tools based on the study design. For nonrandomized studies, the Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies - of Interventions (ROBINS-I) tool8 was used, assessing 7 domains: bias due to confounding, selection of participants, classification of interventions, deviations from intended interventions, missing data, measurement of outcomes, and selection of reported results. Bias due to confounding was noted as a potential issue because patients with more severe baseline characteristics were more likely to receive certain interventions, potentially skewing outcome comparisons. For RCTs, the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 (RoB 2) tool [9] was employed, which evaluates bias across domains such as the randomization process, deviations from intended interventions, missing outcome data, measurement of the outcome, and selection of the reported result. Missing outcome data were flagged as a moderate risk because a significant number of patients were lost to follow-up, which could affect the robustness of the reported results. Each domain was rated as “low risk,” “moderate risk,” “serious risk,” or “critical risk.” The overall risk of bias for each study was determined by the highest level of risk identified in any domain. Studies with a “serious” or “critical” risk of bias were considered to have significant methodological limitations. A serious risk of bias was observed due to participant selection issues, where nonrandomized allocation led to potential baseline imbalances that may have influenced outcomes. Disagreements between the reviewers regarding the risk of bias assessments were resolved through discussion or arbitration by a third reviewer, ensuring a comprehensive evaluation process and minimizing subjective biases.
RESULTS
The PRISMA 2020 flow diagram outlines the process of a systematic review that screened studies related to full endoscopic cervical spine surgery. Initially, 1,772 records were identified from databases such as PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, Embase, and Web of Science. After removing 1,243 duplicates and non-English articles, 529 records were screened. Of these, 389 were excluded based on their titles, and 100 reports were assessed for eligibility. Ultimately, 70 reports were excluded for not meeting criteria related to clinical relevance or specific surgical focus, leaving 30 studies included that pertained to full endoscopic cervical spine surgery, emphasizing clinical outcomes and patient perspectives. A total of 30 studies were included in this systematic review, comprising patients who underwent FECS for various cervical spine disorders. The studies were conducted between 2008 and 2024, with sample sizes ranging from 3 to 252 patients. The study designs included RCTs, prospective cohort studies, and retrospective observational studies. Details of the study populations, including age, symptom duration, and previous treatments, are summarized in Table 1 [5,6,10-37].
1. Demographic and Baseline Characteristics
1) Sample size
The study had a large sample size of 252 patients in Zheng et al. (2018) [12]. This variation indicates that while some studies focus on small, specific patient groups, others provide insights from more generalized, larger populations.
2) Age and sex
The age of patients across studies typically ranges from young adults (around 20–30 years) to older adults (up to 80 years), with most studies focusing on middle-aged adults (40s–60s). Sex distribution varies slightly by study, with most male patients in some studies (especially in military or occupational groups). However, several studies have balanced gender ratios, with some specifically mentioning the percentage of females and males in the cohort.
3) Nationality
The studies predominantly focus on populations from Asian countries. China: Most of the studies are based in China, and they significantly represent Chinese patients. South Korea: Several studies were conducted in South Korea, highlighting a focus on East Asian populations. Japan: A few studies are based in Japan. Smaller studies are conducted in Italy, Turkey, and Indonesia.
4) Symptom duration
The duration of symptoms before surgery varies widely, from just a few weeks to several months (2–12 months). Some studies did not provide specific data on symptom duration but indicated that patients had failed conservative treatment for a significant amount of time before being considered for surgery (4–6 weeks).
5) Level of disc herniation
The most reported levels of cervical disc herniation across studies are C4–5, C5–6, and C6–7. These levels are frequently associated with cervical radiculopathy and myelopathy, which are the most common indications for FECS.
6) Previous conservative treatment
A significant number of studies report that patients underwent conservative treatments with physical therapy, medications, or rest for at least 4–6 weeks before deciding to undergo surgery. This failure of conservative treatment is a typical criterion for selecting patients for surgery in the studies reviewed.
2. Overall Clinical Outcomes and Surgical Parameters
Clinical outcomes which included pain relief, functional improvement, complication rates, and patient satisfaction, were consistently reported across the studies. Surgical parameters, such as operating time, intraoperative blood loss and hospital stay, were also documented. The findings are summarized in Table 2 [5,6,10-37].
1) Functional improvement and pain relief
Significant reductions in arm and neck pain were reported in most studies. Ruetten et al. [5] demonstrated an 87.4% reduction in arm pain, and Kim et al. [6] observed a 90% improvement in 2 of 3 patients. Neck pain was also significantly reduced, with VAS scores decreasing from preoperative values of 7.89 to 1.11 postoperatively in the study by Ye et al. [11]. This trend was consistent across other studies, with significant improvements reported within 1 week to 12 months postoperatively. Significant pain relief was consistently observed across the included studies. Yang et al. [10] reported substantial reductions in disability scores for both the anterior full endoscopic cervical discectomy and posterior full endoscopic cervical discectomy groups. Shu et al. [17] demonstrated a marked improvement in neck pain, with the VAS score decreasing from 5.8 preoperatively to 1.1 at 12 months. Similarly, Lee et al. [14] found that 95% of their patients experienced improvements, emphasizing the efficacy of FECS in providing significant pain relief and alleviating symptoms.
2) Surgical parameters
The mean operating time varied across studies, depending on the complexity of the procedure. Ruetten et al. [5] reported a mean operating time of 28 minutes for full endoscopic posterior cervical foraminotomy (FPCF) and 68 minutes for ACDF. Other studies reported operating times ranging from 42.3 minutes (Kotheeranurak et al. [35]) to 169.3 minutes (Ran et al. [26]), reflecting differences in surgical techniques and patient factors. Intraoperative blood loss was minimal, with several studies reporting negligible or no measurable blood loss, indicating the minimally invasive nature of FECS.
3) Hospital stay
The mean hospital stay was generally short, with most studies reporting stays between 1 and 4 days. For instance, Zheng et al. [12] reported an average hospital stay of 1 day, while Wan et al. [13] noted a mean stay of 3 days. This reflects the benefit of the minimally invasive approach, allowing patients to recover more quickly compared to traditional open surgeries.
3. Comparison of Anterior and Posterior Approach
1) Clinical outcome, surgical parameters, and complication of anterior approach
The anterior approach is primarily utilized for pathologies such as cervical disc herniation and ventral spinal cord compression. This approach commonly involves procedures like anterior cervical discectomy, foraminotomy, and fusion. The clinical outcomes were significant reductions in radicular pain reported across most studies, with pain relief exceeding 85% in several cohorts (Ruetten et al. [5] and Zheng et al. [12]). Functional improvements, measured by the VAS and NDI, demonstrated consistent preoperative-to-postoperative reductions. Zheng et al. [12] reported a mean VAS reduction from 7.5 to 1.2. Complications included dysphagia was a reported complication, reported in 5%–10% of cases, typically transient and resolving within weeks. Ruetten et al. [5] observed transient dysphagia in 3% of patients undergoing ACDF. Recurrence of symptoms was rare but noted in some long-term studies, with rates ranging from 1% to 5%. Surgical parameters were operating times varied widely, with a mean of 70–90 minutes for anterior procedures, depending on complexity and surgical technique. Blood loss was minimal, typically below 20 mL, reflecting the minimally invasive nature of these approaches.
2) Clinical outcome, surgical parameters, and complication of posterior approach
The posterior approach is preferred for dorsal pathologies, such as foraminal stenosis and radiculopathy, where nerve root decompression is the primary goal. Techniques include posterior cervical foraminotomy, laminoplasty, and fusion. Clinical outcomes included pain relief was substantial, with posterior approaches yielding a VAS improvement comparable to anterior procedures. Ye et al. [11] reported a reduction in VAS scores from 7.8 preoperatively to 1.1 postoperatively. Functional recovery rates were high, with over 90% of patients achieving “good” or “excellent” outcomes as per MacNab criteria. The complications including dura tearing and transient neurological deficits were the most common complications. Shu et al. [17] reported a 3% incidence of transient thumb weakness postoperatively. Revision surgery rates were slightly higher compared to anterior approaches, primarily due to incomplete decompression or recurrent symptoms (4%–6%). Surgical parameters were the average operating time for posterior procedures ranged from 50 to 80 minutes, with negligible intraoperative blood loss in most studies. Hospital stays were short, typically 1–3 days, demonstrating the efficiency of posterior endoscopic methods.
3) Comparative analysis between anterior and posterior approach
The anterior and posterior approaches demonstrated significant differences in complications and surgical outcomes included dysphagia was exclusively associated with the anterior approach, while dura tears and neurological deficits were more frequent with posterior methods. Patient satisfaction was consistently high for both approaches, exceeding 90% in most studies, with slightly higher satisfaction rates observed for posterior procedures due to lower dysphagia incidence. Pain relief was comparable across both approaches, with anterior procedures favored for ventral pathologies and posterior methods for dorsal pathologies. The importance of tailoring the surgical approach to the specific pathology and patient needs, ensuring optimal outcomes with minimal complications.
4. Overall Complication and Revision Rates
The risks associated with FECS involve considering the overall low complication rates but significant serious complications that can impact patient outcomes. Although the majority of complications are transient, such as radicular pain or sensory disturbances, and typically resolve without further intervention, there are still risks that need to be carefully managed. These include neurological deficits, such as temporary thumb weakness or dysesthesia, which, while generally mild, can be concerning for patients. Additionally, although uncommon, serious complications such as hematomas, dysphagia, or even permanent neurological deficits have been reported. The risk of revision surgery, primarily due to recurrent symptoms or incomplete decompression, ranges from 0% to 7.3%, with some studies, like that by Ruetten et al. [5], indicating slightly higher rates for anterior approaches (4.7% for ACDF). Notably, the posterior approach group in the study of Xiao et al. [16] had a lower revision rate (4.55%) compared to the anterior approach (10%).
5. Overall Patient Satisfaction and Clinical Success
Patient satisfaction was consistently high through studies, with rates exceeding 85% in most cases. Ruetten et al. [5] reported that 96% of patients undergoing FPCF were satisfied with their outcomes, while Zheng et al. [12] reported an 86.7% satisfaction rate. MacNab criteria were frequently used to assess patient satisfaction, with most studies reporting “excellent” or “good” outcomes. Overall clinical success, defined as the resolution of symptoms and improvement in function, was also favorable. Ye et al. [11] reported a 100% clinical success rate in their cohort, and Zhong et al. [31] reported 91.17% success rate based on patient-reported outcomes. The recurrence rate was minimal, with most studies reporting no recurrence of symptoms postoperatively.
6. Risk of Bias Assessment
Risk of bias was assessed using the ROBINS-I tool for nonrandomized studies (Table 3 [6-10-37], Fig. 2) and the Cochrane RoB 2 tool for RCTs (Table 4 [5,24], Fig. 3). The 2 included RCTs by Ruetten et al. [5] and Tacconi et al. [24] were low risk across all domains, indicating strong methodological quality and reliable findings on the efficacy and safety of FECS. Nonrandomized studies generally exhibited a moderate to serious risk of bias, particularly in confounding and selection domains. Kim et al. [6], Ye et al. [11], and Wan et al. [13] showed serious confounding risks due to potential uncontrolled variables affecting outcomes. Selection bias was also common, as many studies used retrospective designs or nonrandomized cohorts, leading to variability in patient characteristics and influencing reported outcomes. While nonrandomized studies like those by Lee et al. [37] and Wang et al. [23] had lower overall risk levels, most were impacted by moderate levels of bias due to participant selection and confounding. These findings underscore the need for additional high-quality RCTs with standardized protocols to validate the long-term efficacy and safety of FECS and reduce the impact of bias in future research.
DISCUSSION
The findings from this systematic review provide strong evidence supporting the clinical efficacy and patient satisfaction associated with FECS as a minimally invasive option for cervical spine pathologies. Across the studies analyzed, FECS consistently demonstrated significant reductions in cervical and radicular pain and improvements in functional outcomes, as evidenced by reductions in the VAS and improvements in NDI [4,6]. High patient satisfaction rates and low complication and revision rates further highlight the advantages of this approach compared to traditional open cervical surgeries [10,11,38].
One of the key strengths observed in this review is the safety profile of FECS, which is particularly important in spine surgery, given the proximity of neural structures. The included studies reported low incidences of complications, with most adverse events such as transient neurological deficits or sensory disturbance being mild and resolving spontaneously [12,13]. This reinforces the minimally invasive nature of FECS, as it allows for decompression with minimal tissue disruption. Additionally, the short hospital stays and reduced postoperative disability rates reported across studies reflect the procedure’s ability to facilitate rapid recovery, enabling patients to resume daily activities and, in many cases, return to work more quickly than conventional surgical options [14]. Patient-reported outcomes were a consistent focus across the reviewed studies, underscoring the increasing importance of these measures in evaluating surgical success. The high levels of satisfaction observed are likely attributable to the reduced postoperative pain, quicker recovery times, and minimal scarring associated with FECS. Furthermore, studies employing MacNab criteria often reported “excellent” or “good” outcomes, which speaks to the procedure’s ability to meet patient expectations and improve quality of life [25]. These findings align with the broader literature on minimally invasive spine surgery, which emphasizes patient-centered outcomes as a critical component of clinical success [17]. The analysis of clinical outcomes from all of the studies (Table 2, Fig. 4) reveals that endoscopic posterior surgical approaches generally result in lower complication rates, averaging 5.05%, compared to approximately 6.45% for anterior and combined anterior-posterior approaches. Additionally, patient satisfaction is higher with posterior methods, averaging 92.38%, while anterior and combined approaches show satisfaction 87.75%. These findings suggest that endoscopic posterior methods may provide better safety and patient-reported satisfaction. However, the choice between endoscopic approaches should be pathology, considering the patient’s condition and each surgical method’s potential benefits versus risks. Additionally, we performed a sensitivity analysis on the clinical outcomes of FECS studies. The analysis showed that pain relief is highly sensitive to extreme values, with the mean increasing significantly and the standard deviation decreasing once outliers were removed. Complication rate and patient satisfaction displayed minimal sensitivity to extreme values, indicating that these outcomes are generally stable across studies. The revision rate slightly increased the mean when outliers were excluded, suggesting some variability. Our sensitivity analysis is shown in Table 5 and Fig. 5 and authors compared the anterior and posterior approaches in Table 6 and Fig. 6 for cervical spine surgery based on all studies included in this systematic review.
Long-term surgical outcomes are essential to understanding procedures’ durability and sustained effectiveness. Studies of ACDF have shown that patients undergoing ACDF generally report sustained pain relief and improved quality of life over 5 to 10 years postsurgery. However, there is a noted risk of ASD, which can develop over time due to altered biomechanics [39,40]. Posterior cervical foraminotomy is known for maintaining good long-term outcomes with respect to pain relief and functional recovery, with low revision rates reported up to 10 years post-operation. It is often associated with fewer complications related to fusion compared to anterior approaches [41-43]. Recent studies of full endoscopic cervical discectomy indicate that patients experience continued pain relief and functional improvements for up to 3–5 years after surgery. The minimally invasive nature of this approach also correlates with reduced scar tissue formation and shorter recovery periods, contributing to long-term success [4,5,44]. These cervical procedures underscore the importance of extended follow-up in evaluating the true effectiveness of cervical spine surgeries. Long-term follow-ups help to assess sustained benefits, potential complications, and the need for further intervention, providing comprehensive insights into the durability of surgical approaches.
The comparative choice between the anterior and posterior approaches in cervical spine surgery is primarily guided by the pathology’s location and the patient’s clinical presentation. The anterior approach is most suitable for addressing ventral pathologies such as cervical disc herniation and direct spinal cord compression. It is often preferred when radicular pain originates from nerve root compression due to a herniated disc or osteophyte formation at the intervertebral disc level. In contrast, the posterior approach is favored for dorsal pathologies, including foraminal stenosis, where nerve root decompression is the primary surgical objective. Conditions such as severe foraminal narrowing and lateral recess stenosis are best managed through posterior techniques, which allow targeted decompression while preserving spinal alignment. Benefits and surgical outcomes that both approaches demonstrate excellent outcomes in terms of pain relief, functional recovery, and patient satisfaction. Studies included in this review reported that anterior and posterior methods achieve comparable reductions in VAS scores for pain and improvements in functional metrics like the NDI [5,12]. Patient satisfaction exceeded 90% in both approaches, with slightly higher rates in posterior procedures due to fewer complications. These findings highlight the versatility and effectiveness of full endoscopic techniques in cervical spine surgery. Complications despite the shared benefits, the anterior and posterior approaches are associated with distinct complication profiles: The anterior approach showed dysphagia is the most notable complication, occurring in 5%–10% of cases, particularly in procedures involving extensive anterior soft tissue dissection. This complication is typically transient, resolving within a few weeks, and rarely requires intervention. The risk of recurrence or ASD, although minimal (1%–5%), is another consideration due to biomechanical alterations following anterior cervical fusion. Posterior approach: Dura tearing and transient neurological deficits, such as thumb weakness, are more common with posterior techniques. These complications occur in approximately 3%–6% of cases but are often self-limiting. Posterior procedures also carry a slightly higher revision rate (4%–6%), primarily due to incomplete decompression or recurrent symptoms.
Clinical decision-making based on the differences in indications, risks, and outcomes between the anterior and posterior approaches has significant implications for clinical decision-making. The selection of the surgical approach should be based on the following as pathology-specific considerations and compressive pathologies, the anterior approach provides direct access and effective decompression, minimizing the need for posterior manipulation. Conversely, posterior approaches are better suited for dorsal pathologies, offering precise decompression with minimal disruption to anterior structures. Patient factors: patient comorbidities, anatomical considerations, and functional demands should guide the decision. For instance, patients with swallowing disorders or a history of anterior neck surgery may benefit from a posterior approach. Based on the surgeon’s expertise that the surgeon’s familiarity with each technique plays a critical role in minimizing complications and optimizing outcomes. Procedural nuances, such as maintaining dura integrity in posterior approaches or minimizing soft tissue trauma in anterior methods, require technical precision. Impact of approach-specific risks understanding the distinct risks of each approach is essential for informed patient counselling. Patients undergoing anterior procedures should be advised about the potential for transient dysphagia, while those opting for posterior surgery should be aware of the risks of transient neurological deficits or revision surgery. These discussions ensure realistic expectations and reinforce the importance of tailored surgical strategies.
Despite these promising results, it is important to acknowledge the limitations within the current body of evidence. Most nonrandomized studies included in this review exhibited moderate to serious risks of bias, particularly in confounding and participant selection [16]. These biases can affect the validity and generalizability of the results, as uncontrolled variables may have influenced outcomes independently of the FECS intervention. Although the 2 included RCTs demonstrated low risk of bias, the overall quality of evidence could benefit from additional high-quality RCTs with rigorous randomization protocols and standardized outcome measures [18]. Heterogeneity among the studies regarding surgical techniques, outcome measures, and patient populations also posed a challenge to synthesis and comparison. For instance, varying operating times and using different endoscopic instruments reflect the evolving nature of FECS techniques and the individualized approach surgeons often adopt based on specific pathology and patient needs [19]. While this variability highlights FECS’s adaptability, it also emphasizes the need for standardized protocols to allow for more consistent outcome reporting in future studies. Based on limitations, the authors initially considered conducting subgroup analyses or meta-regression. However, variations in how outcomes were reported and incomplete data across studies made these methods infeasible. For future studies, we recommend standardizing outcome measures and reporting formats. This would enable more rigorous analyses, such as subgroup analyses or meta-regression, and help in better understanding and managing the variability in study results.
The future of FECS is promising, particularly with the integration of emerging technologies. Specific advancements in robotic assistance and artificial intelligence (AI) hold significant potential to enhance further the precision, efficiency, and safety of FECS. For example, robotic systems can improve surgical precision by enabling more accurate navigation and positioning of instruments, thus reducing the likelihood of complications and improving overall patient outcomes [45-47]. AI applications can also play a key role in preoperative planning by analyzing patient data and predicting surgical outcomes, allowing for more personalized and optimized treatment strategies. During surgery, AI-powered systems can assist with real-time guidance, monitoring, and decision-making, ultimately reducing operative time and minimizing human error. Additionally, robotics can provide greater dexterity and stability during complex procedures, making it easier to navigate delicate spinal structures [45-47]. These technologies, alongside advancements in tissue engineering and regenerative therapies such as growth factors and stem cells, could complement FECS by promoting tissue healing and reducing the need for more invasive fusion procedures. Together, these innovations pave the way for significant advancements in FECS, improving surgical outcomes, reducing recovery times, and enhancing patient satisfaction [21]. Finally, this review underscores the potential of FECS as a safe, effective, and patient-centered approach for the treatment of cervical spine disorders. The consistent improvements in pain relief, functional outcomes, and patient satisfaction highlight its advantages over traditional open procedures.
CONCLUSION
FECS offers significant clinical benefits, including effective pain relief, functional improvement, and high patient satisfaction, with minimal complications and low revision rates. While the current evidence is encouraging, further high-quality studies are needed to confirm this technique’s long-term efficacy and safety. The future of endoscopic spine surgery is poised for substantial advancements by integrating robotics, navigation and biological innovations, which will likely enhance the precision, safety, and scope of this minimally invasive approach.
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